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Review Essays of Academic, Professional & Technical Books in the Humanities & Sciences
The Origins of Modern Environmental Thought by J. E. de Steiguer (University of Arizona Press) provides readers with a concise and lively introduction to the seminal thinkers who created the modern environmental movement and inspired activism and policy change. Beginning with a brief overview of the works of Thoreau, Mill, Malthus, Leopold, and others, de Steiguer examines some of the earliest philosophies that underlie the field. He then describes major socioeconomic factors in post–World War II America that created the milieu in which the modern environmental movement began, with the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring. The following chapters offer summaries and critical reviews of landmark works by scholars who helped shape and define modern environmentalism. Among others, de Steiguer examines works by Barry Commoner, Paul Ehrlich, Kenneth Boulding, Garrett Hardin, Herman Daly, and Arne Naess. He describes the growth of the environmental movement from 1962 to 1973 and explains a number of factors that led to a decline in environmental interest during the mid-1970s. He then reveals changes in environmental awareness in the 1980s and concludes with commentary on the movement through 2004. Updated and revised from The Age of Environmentalism, this expanded edition includes three new chapters on Stewart Udall, Roderick Nash, and E. F. Schumacher, as well as a new concluding chapter, bibliography, and updated material throughout. This primer on the history and development of environmental consciousness and the many modern scholars who have shaped the movement will be useful to students in all branches of environmental studies and philosophy, as well as biology, economics, and physics.
The publication of Silent Spring in 1962 has generally been
credited with beginning the modern era of environmental concern. The
Origins of Modern Environmental Thought is about that era. Its
chapters explore the writings of Rachel Carson and of several
environmental and natural resource scholars who followed her during
the 196os and 1970s. These scholars include, among others, Barry
Commoner, Garrett Hardin, Paul Ehrlich, Roderick Nash, Lynn White,
and E. F. Schumacher. Their theories about the causes of and
solutions to our ecological problems have become an indispensable
part of environmental wisdom. Above all, this book is about ideas
and the power of those ideas to influence public opinion.
The Origins of Modern Environmental Thought is intended
primarily as a supplemental reader for university-level
environmental studies courses at both the graduate and undergraduate
levels. Such environmental courses would include those in
agriculture, biology, ecology, economics, engineering, ethics,
forestry, geography, history, law, literature, natural resources,
philosophy, political science, and religion. The book also may be of
interest to those who simply desire a deeper understanding of
ecological philosophy.
The Origins of Modern Environmental Thought has examined a
variety of ideas regarding the causes of and solutions to world
environmental problems. In addition to Rachel Carson's pioneering
work, de Steiguer examined the contributions of Harold
Barnett and Chandler Morse. These economists conducted the first
empirical test of the Malthusian hypothesis and concluded that
resource scarcity fears were unfounded for the United States but
that concerns regarding loss of environmental quality were probably
justified. Stewart Udall argued that by studying the history of
natural resource conservation we could plan for a better future.
Roderick Nash taught us about the worth of wilderness. A. C. Pigou
and the neoclassical economists suggested that a well-functioning
system of markets was the key to coping with both resource scarcity
and environmental problems. They also said that the hidden social
costs of pollution damages, known as economic externalities, must be
reduced in order to achieve the greatest possible level of human
satisfaction.
Kenneth Boulding argued that the laws of physics, through
the process of entropy, place limits on the availability of energy
resources. This notion of energy entropy presented humanity with the
ultimate Malthusian threat. Lynn White Jr. argued that Christian
beliefs were the root cause of the environmental crisis. In the
process, he initiated a dialogue on the relationship between
religion and environmental matters. Paul Ehrlich, in The Population
Bomb, predicted that excess population and pollution would cause
worldwide catastrophe within just a few years. He pressed for
draconian constraints on individual freedom in order to save society
from its own hedonistic tendencies.
Garrett Hardin alerted us to the fact that the common
property nature of environmental resources was an important factor
governing their exploitation. His classic article, "The Tragedy of
the Commons," became one of the most widely read of all
environmental works. Barry Commoner examined growth in human
population, resource consumption, and modern technology to
determine which was most responsible for our environmental
problems, concluding that the last was most at fault. However,
Commoner was never able to suggest a social solution. Herman Daly
revived the long-forgotten writings of John Stuart Mill and called
for a voluntary steady-state economy in order to strike an
equilibrium between humans and the natural world. He said that
society should look toward intellectual achievement rather than
material consumption as a means of personal fulfillment. Innovative
researchers from MIT used modern technology in the form of computer
models to predict the state of the future world. However, when their
results indicated disaster, critics said it was merely "Malthus
with a computer." When you put "Malthus-in," they said, you get
"Malthus-out:' Fritz Schumacher suggested that by changing economic
systems and consumption patterns, we could improve our stewardship
of the environment. Finally, deep ecology philosopher Arne Naess
urged people to look inward for self-realization regarding the
proper state of the environment. He then charged them to look
outward to find ways of implementing social change in order to
achieve their vision of this perfect world.
As society faces future environmental challenges, the ideas
presented in this book will have continuing relevance. The
importance to society of the wisdom offered by these environmental
philosophers will increase with the passage of time. Students,
professors, legislators, and politicians—all of those who would find
solutions to the problems of growing human population, the
exhaustion of natural resources, and the degradation of the
environment—will continue to draw from these learned works. By
virtue of their continuing social value, these contributions must
truly be regarded as classical contributions to the environmental
literature.
In this book de Steiguer has encouraged a
search for accommodation among differing environmental worldviews
for the purpose of resolving environmental problems. I now
challenge you, after studying these literary works, to find ways in
which these separate theories might accommodate one another. As an
example, de Steiguer close by examining how three of
the environmental theories could be complementary. From Malthus and
the neo-Malthusians, we derive an unyielding sense of urgency
regarding environmental matters. Their hypothesis provides a
haunting image of what might be should we fail to take natural
resource and environmental matters seriously. Admittedly, since
Malthus' own time his theory has generated reaction and even outrage
for its implied lack of faith in humanity. Yet, neo-Malthusian
thinking continues to exert pressure on society to solve its
environmental problems. Malthusian concerns no doubt provide the
impetus for much of the modern environmental movement.
The modern neoclassicists, in their role as analytical
economists, have traditionally not been concerned with the
philosophical and psychological factors governing resource
consumption activities. Instead, they have dealt primarily with
empirical validation of that behavior in response to prices, costs,
and other market-related phenomena. The ethical motivations behind
an economic response have been of less concern than the response
itself. Indeed, modern mainstream economists generally conclude
that the establishment of normative social goals is beyond their
role, because there is no objective way for them to establish those
goals. With their particular perspective, environmental economists
have brought practical skills to environmental matters. With rigor
and mathematics, they have been able to suggest specific methods of
analysis to determine the economic importance of environmental
damage, to examine the tradeoffs required to control losses, and
also to suggest specific policy instruments for reducing damages.
These mainstream economists will continue to provide analytical
information to elected officials who must draft and vote on
environmental legislation.
Finally, from the modern steady-state theorists we receive
important recommendations for developing closer working
relationships between economists and biologists and for
establishing better systems for measuring aggregate economic
performance. However, the most meaningful legacy of John Stuart Mill
is his expression of faith that humanity can control its destiny.
Far from being simply economic man—that pale wraith of a creature
who follows his adding-machine brain wherever it leads him"—Mill's
person had a heart and a mind to make intelligent choices that might
involve denial of material needs. To many people, Mill's work
represents something more than a utopian ideal; it may prove the
solution to our environmental problems.
While researching and writing this book, de Steiguer
has frequently returned to Silent Spring and the words of Rachel
Carson as a source of insight and inspiration. Her final words in
that book are fitting for this conclusion as well, because they
eloquently express the themes of accommodation, creativity, and
imagination that are needed to sustain life and resolve
environmental problems:
Return
of the Unicorns by Eric Dinerstein, George B.
Schaller (Columbia University Press) What would it take to track down, subdue
and move a 2.2 metric ton rhinoceros? And why would anyone endeavor to undertake
such a daunting task? In the Terai Arc, the lush and richly bio-diverse corridor
resting in the shadows of the
Return of the Unicorns is as much about Dinerstein’s own transformation as
it is about rhinoceros: from a child who dreamed of studying prehistoric large
mammals to a curious wildlife biologist who counted rhinoceros and picked
through their dung to a conservation biologist the
Return of the Unicorns sounds many complex themes.
The
sequence of the book emphasizes a conservation biology approach: describing the
status and root causes of decline of an endangered species, understanding basic
biology, and applying biological insights and knowledge of socioeconomic
conditions to the design of conservation programs. Each chapter begins with an
anecdote about Dinerstein’s experiences while studying rhinoceros or other large
Asian mammals. Each chapter ends with statistical notes, where applicable.
Appendix A describes the methods used in the field study.
Part I, "
Vanishing Mammals, Vanishing Landscapes," covers the demise of rhinoceros and
their habitats and identifies the causes of the loss. Chapter 1 traces the
evolution and decline of rhinoceros and their relatives and looks at why they
have persisted for so long. This chapter also covers the current status of
remaining populations of rhinoceros in Asia. Chapter 2 examines the threats to
rhinoceros caused by demands for its body parts, notably its fabled horn.
Chapter 3 introduces the endangered floodplain ecosystems of the study area and
provides a brief history of conservation of Nepalese megafauna.
Part II,
"The Biology of an Endangered Herbivore," explores the rhino's natural history,
providing the scientific foundation necessary for devising conservation plans.
Within this section, Dinerstein often refers to Royal Chitwan National Park;
with its rich megafauna, Chitwan is a living laboratory--a window on the
Pleistocene--where one can observe and study interactions between mammals and
their environment not unlike those that occurred when giant herbivores dominated
the landscape. Chapter 4 begins with a description of the physical
characteristics of greater one-horned rhinos and a comparison of them with
other rhinoceros in terms of both size and degree of sexual dimorphism.
Dinerstein shows how extremely large body size influences various aspects of
rhinoceros ecology and impinges on conservation efforts. Chapter 5 challenges
certain aspects of the argument that very large herbivores are by nature prone
to extinction. Dinerstein begins by describing the demographic, genetic, and
environmental threats faced by rhinoceros. Then he traces the rapid recovery of
the Chitwan population from a population bottleneck, and I discuss the
remarkably high levels of genetic variability in the Chitwan rhinoceros
population and the implications of these findings for other species. Chapter 6
focuses on the effects of very large body size on many aspects of rhinoceros
biology, including use of space, feeding ecology, activity patterns, and
thermoregulatory strategies. The social organization of an endangered species is
extremely important because it ultimately affects such issues as population
management and reserve design. Chapter 7 relates biology to social behavior by
describing the rapid turnover of dominant males in areas of high densities of
breeding females; it also discusses how the size and condition of the tusks
(i.e.., procumbent outer incisors), rather than the horn or other secondary
sexual characteristics, largely determine dominance. In chapter 8, Dinerstein
illustrates the role that giant herbivores play as landscape architects while
highlighting just how the rhinos do this. In some parts of their range, giant
herbivore populations have been so decimated that they have suffered ecological
extinction; they may persist in small numbers, but their once-prominent role in
the ecosystem has vanished. In contrast, the presence of large prehistoric
herbivores in Chitwan allows us to evaluate evolutionary theories about how
giant mammals and plants interact without having to experiment instead with
surrogate species such as domesticated livestock. Field studies detailing the
fascinating story of rhinoceros as megafaunal seed dispersers may interest
evolutionary biologists but mean little to subsistence-level farmers, who view
rhinos as unwanted consumers of their crops. Part III, "The Recovery of
Endangered Large Mammal Populations and Their Habitats in Asia," devotes
considerable attention to projects that
Dinerstein’s final objective is to promote an integrated conservation strategy
for Asian megafauna. In chapter 11, he proposes that, given adequate protection
from poaching and provided with suitable habitat, even some of the largest,
slowest-breeding mammals can recover quickly from episodes of near extinction.
The final chapter introduces an experiment in landscape-scale conservation for
rhinoceros, tigers, and wild elephants -the Terai Arc - that draws on the
natural history studies that Dinerstein describes in part II and builds on the
lessons learned from the conservation program. The
Terai Arc is designed to link eleven national parks and reserves across
southern Nepal and northern India through wildlife corridors. The Terai Arc,
which was being implemented as
Return of the Unicorns went to press, will, the author predicts, be viewed
as the most ambitious wildlife recovery project in Asia.
This book
sums up with a thorough appreciation not only of the biology of this fascinating
mammal but also of the endangered habitats for which rhinoceros serve as a
flagship species. The vanishing landscape of lush floodplain grasslands and
riverine forests at the base of the Himalayas is one of the most productive
areas for wild ungulates on Earth and one of the most threatened. Ultimately,
the conviction to conserve endangered large mammals must spring from an
appreciation of their intrinsic value and widespread public awareness,
especially of the reality that once extinct, species are gone forever. It is
hoped that, in its own small way,
Return of the Unicorns spurs concerned individuals to speak up for the large
Asian mammals that have no voice in their future.
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