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Cheesemaking

Cheese Problems Solved edited by P. McSweeny (CRC) Cheese is a unique food product which requires a significant amount of scientific knowledge to be produced successfully. However, due to the many complex and inter-related changes which occur during cheese manufacture and ripening, it is still not possible to guarantee the production of premium quality cheese. Written by an international team of renowned contributors, Cheese problems solved provides responses to around 200 of the most frequently asked questions about cheese and the cheesemaking process, in a unique and practical question-and-answer format.Opening chapters concentrate on queries regarding the preparation of cheesemilk, the conversion of milk to curd, the ripening process, pathogens, cheese analysis and the nutritional aspects of cheese, among other issues. The latter part of the book discusses particular types of cheeses including Cheddar, Grana-type cheeses, Mozzarella, Blue, Swiss and Dutch cheeses, to name but a few.

Edited by a leading expert and with contributions from specialists in this area, Cheese problems solved will be an essential reference source and problem-solving manual for professionals and trainees in the cheese industry.

P. L. H. McSweeney is Associate Professor in the Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences at University College Cork, Ireland. Dr McSweeney is internationally recognised for his research in cheese science.

Although cheese is a very ancient food product which originated close to the dawn of agriculture, it is still not possible to guarantee the production of premium quality cheese. The way in which cheese ripens and its quality are often heavily dependent on very small differences in its compositional characteristics. Most cheeses are also very dynamic products and change substantially during ripening. For these reasons, more scientific knowledge is necessary for the successful manufacture of cheese than for perhaps any other food product.

The objective of this book is to provide practical knowledge about cheese and problems which occur during its manufacture in a unique question-and-answer format which will allow cheesemakers to find information quickly. Because many of the issues dealt with in this book are complex, it is often possible to provide only an overview of the topic and to highlight its main points. In the case of some entries, the objective is to start the reader thinking along the right lines; cheesemakers will require further information before being confident of the solution to a particular problem. Hence, most entries contain a list of Further reading to which the reader is directed for more detailed information on the problem being discussed. In addition, there are relatively few simple cause-and­effect relationships in cheese, and varying one factor often causes changes to numerous other parameters in the cheese. Because of this and to avoid overlap between certain questions, each entry contains cross-references which direct the reader to other entries containing information of relevance to the topic being discussed. This book presupposes the level of knowledge of dairy chemistry and cheese science and technology that would be common among people working in the dairy industry. Hence, there is little discussion of cheesemaking technology or science beyond that essential for the topic under consideration. There follows a list of texts on cheese science and technology and dairy chemistry to which the reader is directed to learn more about the science and technology underpinning cheese manufacture.

  • Milk
    • 1 Introduction            
    • 2 What is the typical composition of cow's milk and what milk constituents favour cheesemaking?          
    • 3 How do seasonal variations in milk composition affect cheese quality?    
    • 4 What are milk salts and how do they affect the properties of cheese?      
    • 5 What are the compositions of other species' milks and how does this affect their cheesemaking properties?
  • Preparation of cheesemilk
    • 6 Introduction            
    • 7 What problems are caused by psychrotrophs?        
    • 8 Why do elevated somatic cell counts cause difficulty in cheesemaking?  
    • 9 Why must milk be standardised for cheesemaking?           
    • 10 Why is cheesemilk usually pasteurised?   
    • 11 What effects does pasteurisation have on cheesemilk?    
    • 12 How does one improve the cheesemaking properties of over-pasteurised milk?
    • 13 What is thermisation and why is it used?
    • 14 Why are colours sometimes added to cheesemilk?           
    • 15 What effects does cold storage have on the properties of milk?  
  • Ultrafiltration of cheesemilk
    • 16 Why is ultrafiltration used for cheesemaking and how is it applied?       
  • Acidification
    • 17 Introduction          
    • 18 What are starters and what starter types are used for cheesemaking?      
    • 19 What problems are caused by antibiotic residues in milk?    
    • 20 What are lactenins and how do these natural substances inhibit acid production?          
    • 21 What are bacteriophage and what strategies should be used to avoid phage infection?           
    • 22 What factors affect the buffering capacity of cheese?     
    • 23 What enzymes from starters contribute to cheese ripening?         
  • Conversion of milk to curd
    • 24 Introduction: how does rennet coagulate milk?   
    • 25 Why is the Phe-Met bond of k-casein so susceptible to rennet action?    
    • 26 How can one demonstrate that there are two stages to rennet coagulation?        
    • 27 What enzymes are in rennet?        
    • 28 What factors affect the retention of rennet in cheese curd?  
    • 29 What rennet substitutes are suitable for cheesemaking?   
    • 30 What factors affect rennet coagulation time?       
    • 31 What effects has homogenisation of milk on the manufacture and quality of cheese?    
    • 32 How does homogenisation affect the functionality of cheese?    
    • 33 Why is CaCl2 often added to cheesemilk?          
  • Syneresis
    • 34 Introduction: what is syneresis?   
    • 35 How does the composition of milk affect syneresis?       
    • 36 What processing variables affect syneresis?         
    • 37 Why are certain cook temperatures used for certain cheeses?
    • 38 What is case hardening and what problems does it cause?
  • Salt in cheese
    • 39 Introduction: what are the functions of NaC1 in cheese?       
    • 40 What are the typical NaC1 levels in different cheeses?   
    • 41 What are the differences between dry-salting and brine-salting?     
    • 42 What factors affect salt uptake in cheese curd?   
    • 43 How does NaC1 affect cheese composition?       
    • 44 What causes the outside of brine-salted cheese to become slimy and sticky?     
    • 45 How should cheese brine be prepared and maintained?   
    • 46 How does NaC1 affect the microbiology of cheese?       
    • 47 How can one make low-sodium cheese?  
  • Cheese yield
    • 48 Introduction: why is cheese yield important?       
    • 49 How is cheese yield defined?       
    • 50 How can cheese yield be predicted?        
    • 51 What factors associated with the milk affect cheese yield?    
    • 52 What factors under the control of the cheesemaker affect yield?    
  • New technologies
    • 53 What potential uses do high hydrostatic pressures and high-pressure homogenisation have in cheesemaking?  
  • The microbiology of cheese ripening
    • 54 Introduction          
    • 55 What factors affect microbial growth in cheese?
    • 56 What are non-starter lactic acid bacteria and how do they affect cheese quality?           
    • 57 What causes the development of gas during ripening?    
    • Pathogens and food poisoning bacteria
    • 58 Introduction          
    • 59 What cheeses are most liable to pathogens?         
    • 60 Which pathogens survive pasteurisation and which are killed?
    • 61 Do pathogens grow during cheese ripening?        
    • 62 What is Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and how is it controlled?           
    • 63 Is Escherichia coli 0157:H7 of concern to cheesemakers?
    • 64 What factors should be considered to reduce coliform counts?
    • 65 What are enterococci and are they pathogenic?   
    • 66 What factors should be considered when developing a HACCP plan for cheesemaking?          
    • 67 What are biogenic amines and how are they produced?  
    • 68 What are mycotoxins, where do they come from and what problems do they cause?     
  • Nutritional aspects of cheese
    • 69 Introduction          
    • 70 What are typical levels of vitamins in different cheeses?
    • 71 Is cheese good for your teeth?      
    • 72 What are typical calcium levels in different cheeses?       
  • Packaging
    • 73 Introduction: how may cheese be packaged?       
    • 74 Why does mould develop under the packaging?  
    • Whey processing
    • 75 What products may be produced from whey?     
    • Analysis of cheese
    • 76 Introduction          
    • 77 What is the correct way to sample cheese for analysis?   
    • 78 How are volatile flavour compounds measured in cheese?   
    • 79 What procedures are available for the sensory analysis of cheese and are they reliable?
    • 80 How reliable is cheese grading?    
  • Principal families of cheese
    • 81 Introduction          
    • 82 What is a 'controlled designation of origin'?        
    • 83 How are cheese varieties classified?         
    • 84 How did cheese originate?           
    • 85 Who are the major cheese consumers and producers in the world?         
    • 86 What are the differences between acid-curd cheese and yoghurt/fermented milks?       
  • Flavour, texture and flavour defects in hard and semi-hard cheeses
    • 87 Introduction          
    • 88 How does flavour develop in cheese during ripening?     
    • 89 How can the problem of bitterness in cheese be solved?
    • 90 What is hydrolytic rancidity and how can it be avoided?      
    • 91 What is late gas blowing and how may this defect be avoided?
    • 92 What general factors affect the texture of hard and semi-hard cheeses?
    • 93 Cheese is weak-bodied. What strategies could be adopted to produce a firmer cheese and what are the effects of each treatment?  
    • 94 What strategies should be adopted and what are the effects of each treatment to obtain a less acid Cheddar cheese?           
    • 95 What strategies can be adopted to soften the texture of a hard cheese?  
  • Grana-type cheeses and Parmesan
    • 96 Introduction          
    • 97 What causes the traditional grainy texture of Italian Grana­-type cheeses?          
    • 98 What common problems are associated with Grana-type cheeses? 
    • 99 How do traditional Italian Grana-type cheeses and industrial `Parmesan' differ?           
  • Cheddar cheese
    • 100 Introduction        
    • 101 What is cheddaring and what physicochemical changes occur during this process?     
    • 102 What are the mechanical and slit openings in Cheddar and how may they be avoided?           
    • 103 Why do salted Cheddar curd pieces not fuse together properly?  
    • 104 Why is it important to control the composition of Cheddar cheese to ensure high quality?      
    • 105 Why does cheese develop a pink discoloration?            
    • 106 What factors lead to texture defects in low-fat/reduced-fat Cheddar cheese?  
    • 107 What factors favour the development of calcium lactate crystals in cheese?     
  • Dutch-type cheeses
    • 108 Introduction        
    • 109 Why is the surface of Gouda cheese slimy and discoloured?    
    • 110 Why is the texture of Gouda cheese tough and the flavor flat?
    • 111 Why does Gouda cheese have a soapy off-flavour?      
    • 112 Why does Gouda cheese have irregular eye distribution?   
    • 113 What problems do Propionibacterium spp. cause in Gouda cheese? How are they controlled?            
    • 114 Under which conditions do blisters occur under the wax layer of Gouda-type cheese?
    • 115 How may late blowing be avoided in Gouda-type cheeses? 
    • 116 How can excessive gas formation by thermophilic streptococci take place in Gouda cheese?  
  • Swiss cheese
    • 117 Introduction        
    • 118 What factors affect eye development in Swiss cheese?
    • 119 What causes 'blind' Emmental cheese?   
    • 120 What causes irregular eye formation, slits or cracks in Emmental cheese?         
    • 121 What is aspartase of Propionibacterium?            
    • 122 How does aspartase activity of Propionibacterium affect Swiss cheese?          
    • 123 How may the size and quantity of the eyes in Emmental-type cheese be controlled?   
    • 124 How do I control the elastic texture of Swiss-type cheese? 
    • 125 Why does Swiss cheese have a sweet flavour?  
    • 126 What are the causes of the most common flavour defects of Swiss cheese?     
    • 127 Is Emmental cheese hygienically safe?   
  • White-mould cheese
    • 128 Introduction        
    • 129 Why does the surface pH in Camembert cheese not increase adequately?        
    • 130 Why is mould development on Camembert or Brie inadequate?
    • 131 Why does Camembert or Brie have a grey or brown colour?     
    • 132 Why does the texture of Camembert or Brie remain too hard?
    • 133 Why does Camembert-type cheese become too liquid?
    • 134 How are spoilage fungi controlled in white-mould cheeses?     
    • 135 How may the 'toad-skin' and 'cat-hair' defects of Camembert cheese be solved?         
    • 136 What causes bitterness and other flavour defects in Camembert? 
  • Blue cheese
    • 137 Introduction: what are Blue cheese varieties?    
    • 138 Why does Blue cheese develop brown spots?    
    • 139 How may spoilage fungi be controlled in Blue cheese?
    • 140 Why does Blue cheese not develop adequate veining?  
  • Bacterial surface-ripened cheeses
    • 141 Introduction: what are bacterial surface-ripened (smear) cheeses?        
    • 142 What organisms grow on the surface of smear cheeses?      
    • 143 Why might smear cheese develop excessive mould?      
    • 144 Why does cheese not develop an adequate smear?        
    • 145 How may patchy smear development be avoided?          
  • Low-moisture Mozzarella cheese (LMMC)
    • 146 Introduction        
    • 147 What are pasta-filata cheeses and what physicochemical changes occur during cooking/stretching?   
    • 148 How can expression of free watery serum be avoided in cooked LMMC?       
    • 149 I recently changed from bacterial to direct acidification. Why is my LMMC different?          
    • 150 How may moisture levels in LMMC be controlled and what changes should be expected if moisture changes?            
    • 151 Shredded cheese tends to mat together into wet aggregates. How may the shreddability of LMMC be improved?      
    • 152 Why does LMMC not develop a smooth stretchable consistency on heating?  
    • 153 Why does LMMC become excessively soft and fluid on heating?   
    • 154 Why does LMMC have poor flowability?          
    • 155 Why does LMMC brown excessively on cooking?        
    • 156 Why and how do the functional properties of LMMC change on heating?       
    • 157 Why does LMMC become excessively soft and gummy during ripening?        
    • 158 What factors affect the functionality of LMMC?          
    • 159 LMMC is tough and rubbery; what might be the problem?  
    • 160 What causes the soft rind/soft surface defect in LMMC?      
    • 161 What causes soft body defect in LMMC?         
    • 162 How may the development of free oil during melting be controlled?    
    • 163 How can the browning rate of LMMC be controlled?   
  • Cheeses ripened in brine
    • 164 Introduction        
    • 165 What causes early and late gas blowing in white-brined cheese?   
    • 166 What causes blowing of the white-brined cheese containers?    
    • 167 How may mouldiness in white-brined cheese be avoided?  
    • 168 What causes softening of the cheese body in white-brined cheeses?     
    • 169 Why is the brine surrounding my white-brined cheese ropy?     
  • Acid and acid/heat-coagulated cheeses
    • 170 Introduction        
    • 171 How may wheying off (spontaneous syneresis) in Quarg be avoided?  
    • 172 Why is Quarg dry and grainy?    
    • 173 How may over-acid and bitter flavour defects in Quarg be avoided?   
    • 174 How may the viscosity of Cream cheese be controlled?       
    • 175 Free oil forms in Cream cheese at the outlet of the heat exchanger. How can this problem be resolved?         
    • 176 Why is the coagulum of Cottage cheese weak with poor syneresis?      
    • 177 What is agglutination of starter bacteria and how do I avoid sludge formation?          
    • 178 How do I solve the 'floating curd' defect in Cottage cheese?    
    • 179 Why are the curd particles for Cottage cheese slick and slimy?
    • 180 Why is there whey separation from my Cottage cheese after packaging?         
    • 181 What strategies should be adopted to improve the yield of Cottage cheese?    
    • 182 What are the likely causes of surface discoloration, off-flavours and bitterness in Cottage cheese?    
    • 183 How may the shelf-life of Cottage cheese be extended?         
    • 184 What are harsh and green flavour defects in Cottage cheese?   
    • 185 How may the mouthfeel of Queso Blanco be improved?       
    • 186 What approaches may be used to control the texture of Queso Blanco?           
  • Cheese as a food ingredient
    • 187 Introduction        
    • 188 How may the browning of heated cheese be controlled?      
  • Processed cheese
    • 189 Introduction: what is processed cheese?            
    • 190 Why does processed cheese sometimes have a gummy pudding-like texture and oil-off?        
    • 191 Why does processed cheese sometimes have a soapy flavour?
    • 192 How is the firmness and spreadability of processed cheese controlled?            
    • 193 Why does processed cheese have a dry, short, crumbly texture?
    • 194 Why does processed cheese have a soft, inelastic, adhesive and spreadable texture?   
    • 195 What causes crystals in processed cheese and how can this problem be minimised?     
  • Cheese-like products
    • 196 Introduction: what are analogue cheeses?          
    • 197 What is enzyme-modified cheese?         

 

Also see

Food Processing